Human Alkhumra hemorrhagic Fever: Emergence, history and epidemiological and clinical profiles.

Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever (AHF) is a severe, often fatal hemorrhagic disease in humans. It is caused by Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus (AHFV), a newly described flavivirus first isolated in 1995 in Alkhumra district, south of Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia. It is transmitted from infected livestock animals to humans by direct contact with infected animals or by tick bites. In the recent past, the incidence of AHF has increased, with a total of 604 confirmed cases have been reported in Saudi Arabia between 1995 and 2020. Yet, no specific treatment or control strategies have been developed and implemented against this infection. Hence, the likelihood of increased prevalence or the occurrence of outbreaks is high, particularly in the absence of appropriate prevention and control strategies. This narrative review presents an overview of the current knowledge and future concerns about AHF globally.

Malaria and blood transfusion: major issues of blood safety in malaria-endemic countries and strategies for mitigating the risk of Plasmodium parasites.

Malaria inflicts humankind over centuries, and it remains as a major threat to both clinical medicine and public health worldwide. Though hemotherapy is a life-sustaining modality, it continues to be a possible source of disease transmission. Hence, hemovigilance is a matter of grave concern in the malaria-prone third-world countries. In order to pursue an effective research on hemovigilance, a comprehensive search has been conducted by using the premier academic-scientific databases, WHO documents, and English-language search engines. One hundred two appropriate articles were chosen for data extraction, with a particular reference to emerging pathogens transmitted through blood transfusion, specifically malaria. Blood donation screening is done through microscopic examination and immunological assays to improve the safety of blood products by detection major blood-borne pathogens, viz., HIV, HBV, HCV, syphilis, and malarial parasites. Transfusion therapy significantly dwindles the preventable morbidity and mortality attributed to various illnesses and diseases, particularly AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. Examination of thick and thin blood smears are performed to detect positivity and to identify the Plasmodium species, respectively. However, all of these existing diagnostic tools have their own limitations in terms of sensitivity, specificity, cost-effectiveness, and lack of resources and skilled personnel. Globally, despite the mandate need of screening blood and its components according to the blood-establishment protocols, it is seldom practiced in the low-income/poverty-stricken settings. In addition, each and every single phase of transfusion chain carries sizable inherent risks from donors to recipients. Interestingly, opportunities also lie ahead to enhance the safety of blood-supply chain and patients. It can be achieved through sustainable blood-management strategies like (1) appropriate usage of precise diagnostic tools/techniques, (2) promoting hemovigilance system, and (3) adopting novel processes of inactivation technology. Furthermore, selection of the zero-risk donors could pave the way to build a transmissible malaria-free world in the near future.

Larvicidal efficacy of Ethiopian ethnomedicinal plant Juniperus procera essential oil against Afrotropical malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae).

OBJECTIVE: To screen the essential oil of Juniperus procera (J. procera) (Cupressaceae) for larvicidal activity against late third instar larvae of Anopheles arabiensis (An. arabiensis) Patton, the principle malaria vector in Ethiopia. METHODS: The essential oil of J. procera was evaluated against the larvae of An. arabiensis under the laboratory and semi-field conditions by adopting the World Health Organization standard protocols. The larval mortality was observed for 24 h of post exposure. RESULTS: The essential oil of J. procera has demonstrated varying degrees of larvicidal activity against An. arabiensis. The LC50 and LC90 values of J. procera were 14.42 and 24.65 mg/L, respectively under the laboratory conditions, and from this data, a Chi-square value 6.662 was observed to be significant at the P=0.05 level. However, under the semi-field conditions the LC50 and LC90 values of J. procera were 24.51 and 34.21 mg/L, respectively and a Chi-square value 4.615 was significant at the P=0.05 level. The observations clearly showed that larval mortality rate is completely time and dose-dependent as compared with the control. CONCLUSIONS: This investigation indicates that J. procera could serve as a potential larvicidal agent against insect vector of diseases, particularly An. arabiensis. However further studies are strongly recommended for the identification of the chemical constituents and the mode of action towards the rational design of alternative promising insecticidal agents in the near future.

Malaria vaccine: a future hope to curtail the global malaria burden.

It has been estimated that nearly half of the world's population is at the risk of contracting malaria with sub Saharan Africa being the most risky area. The existing frontline malaria control interventions are not only expensive but also become ineffective owing to the emergence of insecticide and drug resistance. It calls for an innovative approach in terms of potential and reliable vaccine as an additional tool. Over centuries, the public health experts have been actively engaged to formulate a safe, affordable and potential malaria vaccine and accordingly a notable achievement has also been attained. However, many challenges are required to be flagged immediately and effectively to devise an ideal prophylactic malaria vaccine. Therefore, the global community has to remain waiting quite a few more years to build a wannabe malaria-free world in the near future.

The counterfeit anti-malarial is a crime against humanity: a systematic review of the scientific evidence.

BACKGROUND: The counterfeiting of anti-malarials represents a form of attack on global public health in which fake and substandard anti-malarials serve as de facto weapons of mass destruction, particularly in resource-constrained endemic settings, where malaria causes nearly 660,000 preventable deaths and threatens millions of lives annually. It has been estimated that fake anti-malarials contribute to nearly 450,000 preventable deaths every year. This crime against humanity is often underestimated or ignored. This study attempts to describe and characterize the direct and indirect effects of counterfeit anti-malarials on public health, clinical care and socio-economic conditions. METHODS: A search was performed using key databases, WHO documents, and English language search engines. Of 262 potential articles that were identified using a fixed set of criteria, a convenience sample of 105 appropriate articles was selected for this review. RESULTS: Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) is an important tool in the fight against malaria, but a sizable number of patients are unable to afford to this first-line treatment. Consequently, patients tend to procure cheaper anti-malarials, which may be fake or substandard. Forensic palynology reveals that counterfeits originate in Asia. Fragile drug regulations, ineffective law-enforcement agencies and corruption further burden ailing healthcare facilities. Substandard/fake anti-malarials can cause (a) economic sabotage; (b) therapeutic failure; (c) increased risk of the emergence and spread of resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax; (d) an undermining of trust/confidence in healthcare stakeholders/systems; and, (e) serious side effects or death. CONCLUSION: Combating counterfeit anti-malarials is a complex task due to limited resources and poor techniques for the detection and identification of fake anti-malarials. This situation calls for sustainable, global, scientific research and policy change. Further, responsible stakeholders in combination with the synthesis and supply of next generation malaria control tools, such as low-cost anti-malarials, must promote the development of a counterfeit-free and malaria-free future.

Insect repellent plants traditional usage practices in the Ethiopian malaria epidemic-prone setting: an ethnobotanical survey.

BACKGROUND: The usage of insect repellent plants (IRPs) is one of the centuries-old practices in Africa. In Ethiopia, malaria remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, subsequently the majority of people have a tendency to apply various plants as repellents to reduce or interrupt the biting activity of insects. Accordingly, this survey was undertaken to document and evaluate knowledge and usage practices of the local inhabitants on IRPs in the malaria epidemic-prone setting of Ethiopia. METHODS: Ethnobotanical survey was conducted between January and May 2013. Selected 309 household members were interviewed by administering pre-tested questionnaire on knowledge and usage practices of repellent plants, in Bechobore Kebele, Jimma Zone, Ethiopia. RESULTS: Overall, 70.2% (217/309) and 91.8% (199/217) of the respondents have had ample awareness and usage practices of repellent plants, respectively. Informants cited about twenty-two plant species as repellents and also indicated that these plants are useful(85.5%), accessible(86.8%), and affordable(83.9%) too. Residents mainly applying dried leaves [93.9% (187/199)] by means of burning/smouldering [98.9% (197/199)] with the traditional charcoal stove to repel insects, primarily mosquitoes. About 52.8% (105/199) of the informants using approximately 15g of dried plant-materials every day. A Chi-square analysis shows statistically a significant link between the knowledge on repellent plants and gender as well as average monthly income although not with the age of the respondents. Nevertheless, the repellent plant usage custom was not significantly associated with gender, monthly income, and age of the informants. CONCLUSION: Though most of the people have had an adequate awareness still a sizable faction of society suffers with deprivation of IRPs knowledge and usage practices. Therefore, this study calls for more surveys to conserve the existing indigenous knowledge and cultural practices. It could lay the first stone to develop the next generation cost-effective vector control tools in the near future.

Role of traditional antimalarial plants in the battle against the global malaria burden.

Malaria continues to be a major global public health problem with 3.3 billion people at risk in 106 endemic countries. Globally, over 1000 plants have been used as potential antimalarials in resource-poor settings due to fragile health-care systems and lack of accessibility and affordability of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs). Although many believe that the use of medicinal plants that have folklore reputations for antimalarial properties is relatively safe, many herbs may be potentially toxic due to their intrinsic adverse side effects. Therefore, herbal-derived remedies require powerful and deep assessment of their pharmacological qualities to establish their mode of action, safety, quality, and efficacy. In addition, the evolution of drug resistance also demands new antimalarial agents. This can be achieved by forming a vibrant antimalarial discovery pipeline among all stakeholders, including traditional healers, ethnobotanists, scientists, entomologists, pharmacists, and research institutions, for the isolation and characterization of the bioactive compounds with the ultimate objective of finding novel modes of action antimalarial compounds that can be used to fight against drug-resistant malarial parasites.

Tungiasis: a neglected epidermal parasitic skin disease of marginalized populations--a call for global science and policy.

Tungiasis (sand flea disease) is an ectoparasitic skin disease caused by the female sand flea/jigger flea (Tunga penetrans). As poverty is the major driving force of the disease, it can be called as a poverty-associated plague. It is one of the emerging neglected diseases in Latin America, Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, and India. The aim of the present scrutiny was to assess the public health impact of tungiasis, associated risk factors, and emerging opportunities to prevent and control tungiasis. Searches of PubMed, Google Scholar, and online search engines (Google, AOL, and Yahoo) using keywords "parasitic skin disease," "tungiasis," "sand flea," " tungiasis-associated risk factors," "tungiasis prevention and control," and their synonyms were used as a source of references. Searches were made without time limitations. Of 167 potential articles identified by these criteria, 51 appropriate were selected for review. Tungiasis is widespread in the resource-constrained settings of low-income economies. In the tropics, it is highly prevalent among the impoverished populations, but the associated risk factors are often poorly identified and remain uncontrolled. Though it is a self-limiting disease with considerable morbidity, the parasite may cause subsequent secondary morbidity through life-threatening complications and infections like cellulitis, tetanus, and death. However, the direct and indirect sociocultural, economic, and health impact of tungiasis is often undervalued and misunderstood. A systematic assessment on disease burden is still dearth and deficient. Over the decades, tungiasis has been largely neglected by the scientific community, policy makers, and healthcare stakeholders. In the endemic regions, even tungiasis is not listed for the disease control priorities in the regional, national, and international agenda. The majority of the epidermal parasitic skin diseases particularly tungiasis needs a sustainable global scientific research and control policy. This urges intensive efforts to develop a road map that delivers a clear vision towards zero new infection by designing low-cost prevention and control strategies. Besides, there is an urgency to develop culturally appropriate communication techniques and workable collaboration on a global scale by bringing all the stakeholders of endemic countries.

Knowledge and practices of farmers with reference to pesticide management: implications on human health.

A study was conducted to assess the knowledge and practices of Ethiopian farmers about pesticide management: implications for human health. A pretested standardized questionnaire was administered. The results revealed that the great majority 174 (99.4%) farmers had ample awareness about pesticide impact on human health. However, various hazardous practices have also been documented. One hundred thirty-five (77.2%) farmers make use of the empty pesticide containers for various household purposes. The most frequent self-reported toxicity symptoms associated with pesticide use were headache (58.8%), salivation and vomiting (38.2%), nausea (36.5%), and sneezing (12.5%). Chi-square analysis revealed a strong association between the farmer's educational status and reported toxicity symptoms (p = .0001; χ(2) = 498.2; df = 30). Creating awareness about safe usage of pesticide is extremely vital by special orientation programs. Besides, promoting alternative pest control strategies such as use of biopesticides and integrated pest management (IPM) could be productive.

Knowledge and self-reported practice of the local inhabitants on traditional insect repellent plants in Western Hararghe zone, Ethiopia.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This paper reveals the trend of knowledge and self-reported practice of traditional insect repellent plants (TIRPs) and could serve as a baseline data to identify/formulate novel plant-based insect repellents in the near future. AIM OF THE STUDY: Insect repellent plants usage is a long-standing and age old tradition. Thus, the major objective of this survey was to assess the knowledge and self-reported practice of the local inhabitants on TIRPs in Western Hararghe zone, Ethiopia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The ethnobotanical survey was conducted between January and March 2011 via administering pre-tested questionnaire by involving the selected 150 household members in the study area. RESULTS: The survey results clearly reveal that nearly 92.1% [90.1% (99/110) of female and 97.5% (39/40) of male] of the respondents have had adequate awareness on TIRPs. Leaves were the most widely applied plant parts and burning/smoldering the plant materials in order to generate smoke was the most common practice. Chi-square statistical analysis shows that there was no significant difference observed in the knowledge of the repellent plants between the gender (P-value=0.134), average monthly income (P-value=0.529) and educational status (P-value=0.107) but there was a significant association with the age (P-value=0.012) of respondents. However, repellent plants usage custom is significantly associated with gender (P-value=0.021) and educational status (P-value=0.003) of the respondents but, there was such no significant relationship between the age (P-value=0.312) average monthly income (P-value=0.111) and repellent plants usage custom. CONCLUSION: Conducting more ethnobotanical survey on TIRPs is extremely important in order to generate and maintain the data-base. Besides, identifying the bio-active molecules, which are responsible for the repellent activity and eventually conducting laboratory and field based studies to evaluate their efficacy and safety are extremely imperative to formulate new classes of plant-based insect repellents/insecticides in the near future.

Ethnomedicinal knowledge, belief and self-reported practice of local inhabitants on traditional antimalarial plants and phytotherapy.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This paper reveals the trend of knowledge and practice of traditional antimalarial plants (TAPs) to prevent/treat malaria. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Stratified, systematic random sampling was adopted. The ethnomedicinal survey was conducted between January and March 2011 by involving the selected 371 household members on knowledge and practice of TAPs by administering a pre-tested questionnaire. RESULTS: Overall, 54.4% respondents had adequate awareness and usage custom of TAPs and 16 types of plant have been most commonly known and employed by the respondents to prevent/treat malaria. Leaves (57.2%) were most commonly used plant part to prepare traditional antimalarial phytotherapy remedies. Decoction was one of the most commonly used methods to administer TAPs. The chi-square test result revealed that a significant association is found between the usage custom of traditional antimalarial plants and gender (P-value=0.0282), age (P-value=0.0024), educational status (P-value=0.0295), and monthly income (P-value=0.0001), although not with the ethnicity (P-value=0.7933) of the respondents. CONCLUSION: TAPs usage is an integral part of the tradition and custom of the Ethiopians. However, nearly half of the respondents have had lack of awareness about TAPs and majority of them are reluctant in exercising either due to its ineffectiveness or its bitter taste. Therefore, further laboratory-based research is extremely imperative to identify their antiplasmodial activity and bioactive molecules which could pave the way to formulate the novel affordable as well as accessible potent antimalarials in the near future.

Peasant association member's knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards safe use of pesticide management.

BACKGROUND: Farmers in the developing world are at risk of pesticide exposure, particularly in low-income countries with a sizable agricultural sector like Ethiopia. The present investigation provides baseline data to develop strategies for the control of pesticide exposure and the prevention of pesticide poisoning. METHODS: A questionnaire survey of a stratified random sample of peasant farmers belonging to peasant associations was conducted. RESULTS: Most surveyed farmers sprayed pesticides without any personal protective equipment. The majority of participants reported using empty pesticide containers for drinking and food storage. Twenty percent of farmers applied pesticides by sweeping with plant leaves in a hazardous manner. CONCLUSIONS: Ethiopian peasant farmers appeared to have limited knowledge of the hazards of pesticides and generally did not handle pesticides in a safe manner. Active health education campaigns and appropriate training programs should be instigated to promote safe use of pesticides.

Laboratory evaluation of traditionally used plant-based insect repellent against the malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis Patton (Diptera: Culicidae).

A laboratory study was carried out to evaluate the repellent efficacy of a methanol-leaf extract of Ethiopian traditionally used insect repellent plant viz., Lomi sar [vernacular name (local native language, Amharic); Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf. (Poaceae)] against Anopheles arabiensis at four different concentrations viz., 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 mg/cm(2). The percentage protection in relation to the dose method was performed. C. citratus extract has shown various degrees of repellency impact against A. arabiensis. It provided the maximum total percentage protection of 78.83% at 2.5 mg/cm(2) and followed 68.06% at 2.0 mg/cm(2) for 12 h. All four tested concentrations of C. citratus extract offered significant protection and Student's t test results shows statistically significant (p value = 0.001) [1.0 mg/cm(2) (t = 22.89; df = 4); 1.5 mg/cm(2) (t = 24.03; df = 4); 2.0 mg/cm(2) (t = 36.92; df = 4); 2.5 mg/cm(2) (t = 22.31; df = 4)] difference between treated and control groups. The result suggests that it could serve as a potent insect repellent against vectors of disease. Globally, C. citratus is renowned for its therapeutic values. Above and beyond, due to its user- as well as environmental-friendly nature, it should be promoted among the marginalized populations in order to reduce man-vector contact. In addition, this appropriate strategy affords the opportunity to minimize chemical repellent usage and the risks associated with adverse side effects. At the end of the day, traditionally used plant-based insect repellents could be viable safer alternative sources for chemical insect repellents.

Knowledge and beliefs about onchocerciasis among rural inhabitants in an endemic area of Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the knowledge and beliefs about causes, transmission, prevention and control of onchocerciasis among rural inhabitants in an endemic area of Ethiopia. Descriptive and quantitative information was collected using focus group discussions and a pretested structured questionnaire. Onchocerciasis affected and unaffected respondents' knowledge and beliefs regarding onchocerciasis were compared. Overall, 75.9% (192/253) of study subjects were aware about onchocerciasis. During the survey, 66.9% of affected, and 45.5% of unaffected respondents knew that onchocerciasis was transmitted through blackfly bites. About 53% of unaffected and 60% of affected respondents thought that onchocerciasis was preventable and the majority of the affected respondents felt that it was curable. Chi-square statistical analysis found a significant association between affected and unaffected individual's knowledge and beliefs about causes, transmission, prevention and control of onchocerciasis. Although the majority of respondents had ample awareness, a sizable proportion still had misconceptions and misunderstandings about causes, transmission, prevention and control of onchocerciasis. Therefore, appropriate communication strategies should be developed to create the awareness regarding the role of blackflies in onchocerciasis transmission, the importance of proper prevention techniques, early diagnosis and treatment to bring a constructive outcome in the near future.

Ethnobotanical survey of knowledge and usage custom of traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants among the Ethiopian Oromo ethnic group.

AIM OF THE STUDY: Repellent plants usage is an integral part of Ethiopian tradition and has been practiced over many centuries. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess the knowledge and usage custom of traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants among the Oromo ethnic group in Ethiopia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The ethnobotanical survey was conducted between January and March 2009. All 276 household members were interviewed on knowledge and usage custom of traditional repellent plants, using a pre-tested questionnaire in Kofe kebele, Jimma zone, Ethiopia. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: 83.6% respondents had adequate knowledge and usage custom regarding insect/mosquito repellent plants. Application of smoke by burning the repellent plant materials was the most common practice. The chi-square test result revealed that there was no statistically significant association found between the knowledge about insect repellent plants and sex (p-value=0.8912), educational status (p-value=0.7504), and age (p-value=0.1631) of the respondents. However, usage custom of repellent plants was significantly associated with sex (p-value=0.0002) and average monthly income (p-value=0.0001) although not with educational status (p-value=0.5206) of the respondents. Repellent efficacy of these plants is undetermined and therefore the scientific validity should be evaluated by conducting further laboratory and field research. Majority of the repellent plants have been used as medicine to treat various ailments by the local community. Furthermore, they are easily available, accessible and affordable therefore usage of traditional repellent plants should be promoted among the local residents in order to reduce vector-borne disease prevalence.

Field trials on the efficacy of DEET-impregnated anklets, wristbands, shoulder, and pocket strips against mosquito vectors of disease.

A field trial was undertaken in order to determine the efficacy of DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) impregnated anklets, wristbands, shoulder and pocket fabric strips against mosquito vectors of disease. The present study was conducted in the urban locality of Pondicherry, India. Human test subjects were exposed to natural populations of mosquitoes for a 12 h (18.00-06.00) night time period. The fabric strips (anklets, wristbands, shoulder, and pocket strips) were impregnated with DEET at two different concentrations of 1.5 mg/cm(2) and 2.0 mg/cm(2). The results clearly revealed that DEET-impregnated anklets, wristbands, shoulder and pocket fabric strips were found more effective against mosquitoes remarkably. The DEET-impregnated anklets, wristbands, shoulder and pocket fabric strips at a concentration of 2 mg/cm(2) provided 5 h complete protection against mosquitoes bites and the reduction of man-landing rate varied between 65.85 and 100%. However, DEET-impregnated fabric strips at a concentration of 1.5 mg/cm(2) provided 4 h complete protection against mosquito bites and the reduction of man-landing rate varied between 51.21 and 100%. The final results clearly demonstrate that repellent activity of DEET-impregnated anklets, wristbands, shoulder, and pocket strips were dose-dependent. Certainly, the DEET-impregnated fabric strips can be used as an effective potential personal protection measure in order to avoid those insects/mosquitoes that prefer to feed outdoors or those that feed in the early evening.

Assessment of knowledge and usage custom of traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants in Addis Zemen Town, South Gonder, North Western Ethiopia.

AIM OF THE STUDY: A cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out to assess the knowledge and usage custom of traditional insect/mosquitoes repellent plants among the inhabitants in Addis Zemen Town, Ethiopia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Stratified, systematic random sampling was used for selection of 393 households from the total of 5161 households. One adult from each household was interviewed. The ethnobotonical survey was carried out during the period February 2007 to March 2007. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS, version 9.0. Range and mean were analysed and appropriate tables, graphs and percentage were displayed. Level of significance also determined by using 95% of confidence intervals and p-value. RESULTS: Overall, 97.2% of the respondents had ample knowledge and usage custom concerning traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants. Application of smoke (91.55%) was one of the most commonly well-known methods amongst local community by burning the plant parts such as leaves, stems and roots. Leaves were used by 90.2% for the application smoke. Knowledge and usage custom of traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants had significantly associated with sex (p=0.013) and lower income of respondents (p=0.002). In spite of this, knowledge and usage custom had no significant association with age and educational status. Furthermore, the survey also indicated that most commonly known traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants were Woira*(1) (Olea europaea) 44%, Tinjut* (Ostostegia integrifolia) 39%, Neem* (Azadirachta indica) 14.1%, Wogert* (Silene macroserene) 1.4%, and Kebercho* (Echinops sp.) 1.1%. CONCLUSIONS: Indigenous traditional insect/mosquito repellent plants have been used by local hamlet since ancient times for various medicinal purposes. Besides, they are not toxic like existing modern synthetic chemical repellents. Therefore, the traditional use of repellent plants should be encouraged and promoted among the local community.

Relative efficacy of repellent-treated wristbands against three major mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vectors of disease, under laboratory conditions.

A laboratory study was carried out to evaluate the relative efficacy of N-N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET)- and N,N-diethyl phenylacetamide (DEPA)-treated wristbands against three major vector mosquitoes viz., Anopheles stephensi Liston, Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Aedes aegypti (L.), at two different concentrations viz., 1.5 and 2.0 mg/cm(2). Overall, both DEET and DEPA have shown various degrees of repellency impact against all three vector mosquitoes. DEET offered the highest 317.0 min mean complete protection against An. stephensi and DEPA provided 275.6 min complete protection to Cx. quinquefasciatus at 2.0 mg/cm(2). However, DEPA-treated wristbands did not show any significant differences in terms of reduction of human landing rate and mean complete protection time against An. stephensi and Ae. aegypti between 1.5 and 2.0 mg/cm(2). DEET demonstrated relatively higher repellency impact to vector mosquitoes than DEPA. However, χ(2) analysis revealed that there was no statistically significant difference found in repellent efficiency between DEET and DEPA (P = 0.924). The present study result suggests that repellent-treated wristbands could serve as a means of potential personal protection expedient to avoid insect's annoyance and reduce vector-borne disease transmission. They are extremely valuable whenever and wherever other kinds of personal protection measures are unfeasible.

Prevalence of malaria from peripheral blood smears examination: a 1-year retrospective study from the Serbo Health Center, Kersa Woreda, Ethiopia.

Malaria is a major public health problem in Ethiopia. Over the past years, the disease has been consistently reported as the first leading cause of outpatient visits, hospitalization and death in health facilities across the country. Thus, a retrospective study was conducted to determine the prevalence of malaria from peripheral blood smear examination from the Serbo Health Center of Ethiopia. The case notes of all malaria cases treated between July 2007 and June 2008 were carefully reviewed and analyzed. Of the total 6863 smears, 3009 were found to be positive and contribute 43.8% of diagnostic yield. Plasmodium falciparum constituted the most predominant [64.6% (1946/3009 cases)], while Plasmodium vivax confirmed with 34.9% (1052/3009) cases. Among patients who underwent diagnostic testing and treatment for malaria, males [63.8% (1918/3009 cases)] were more prone to have a positive malaria smear than females [36.2% (1091/3009 cases)]. Chi-square statistical analysis shown that there was a statistically significant association found between male cases and number of positive blood smear (chi(2)=28.1; df=7; p-value=0.001). The present study results clearly suggest that the catchment area of Serbo Health Center is prone for epidemic malaria and the situation is quite deteriorating. At the moment, although we are not equipped with magic bullet for malaria effective low-cost strategies are available for its treatment, prevention, and control. Therefore, creating awareness by active health education campaigns and applying integrated malaria control strategy could bring the constructive outcome in the near future.

Evaluation of leaf extracts of Vitex negundo L. (Family: Verbenaceae) against larvae of Culex tritaeniorhynchus and repellent activity on adult vector mosquitoes.

Petroleum ether (60-80 degrees C) extracts of the leaves of Vitex negundo (Verbenaceae) were evaluated for larvicidal activity against larval stages of Culex tritaeniorhynchus in the laboratory. Larvae of C. tritaeniorhynchus were found more susceptible, with LC(50) and LC(90) values of 2.4883 and 5.1883 mg/l, respectively. Human volunteers wearing special terricot (68:32) fabrics, in the form of armbands, anklets, headbands, collar, and shoulder and pocket strips impregnated with V. negundo leaf extract were used, to test their repellent efficacy at two concentrations viz., 1.5 and 2.0 mg/cm(2) under the field conditions. At 1.5-mg/cm(2) concentration, more efficacies were found and 6-h complete protection against mosquito bites was provided. Complete protections for 8 h were found at 2.0 mg/cm(2) against mosquitoes bites. These results clearly reveal that the V. negundo leaf extract served as a potential larvicidal agent against Japanese encephalitis vector C. tritaeniorhynchus and additionally acted as a promising repellent against various adult vector mosquitoes.